The Power Camp

Some national and regional networks, rather than promoting a specific curriculum, seek affiliates that embrace their philosophy of programming for girls. The Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women in Sport and Physical Activity (CAAWS) promotes its philosophy of physical activity and self-esteem for girls through In
Motion workshops across the country. The organization is now taking this philosophy into nine communities working exclusively with Aboriginal girls in partnership with the Aboriginal Sports Circle. The Power Camp National/Filles d’action network also has a defined philosophy based on its understanding of best practices in gender-based girl-specific programming, and has gathered up and linked a number of interesting community based “boutique” programs and individual women committed to such programming under their network umbrella.

Curriculum and program philosophies

Rather than all being developed from scratch, there appears to be some take-up of existing curricula that has been designed especially for, or easily adapted to, gender- based girl-specific programs. Examples include TAKE IT EASY!, a self-esteem curriculum, Girls Inc. that licenses the use of eight research-based programs for girls, the YWCA’s Girls Clubs, and Just for Girls, a BC-based program to “help girls safely navigate the rocky road through adolescence and avoid the pitfalls such as eating disorders”. In general, however, not all programmers are aware of the various curricula that are available. A short list of curriculum resources currently available is included in the appendices.

Girls in science

It is also exciting to see that young women have initiated several programs and groups for girls and young women. Justice for Girls is an advocacy and internship program in Vancouver for girls under age 19 living in poverty that was set up by two young women, one with experience living on the street, the other a street worker. The Canadian Association for Girls in Science, for girls ages seven to 16, was created by a nine-year-old girl out of her passion for science and concern that girls were turning off of science at a very young age. Another girls’ empowerment program, Ophelia’s Voice, was recently developed by a 13-year-old girl in Calgary who has promoted it through the web-based social action youth forum, Taking IT Global, as well as through local community-based organizations.

Responsive program development

Much of the girls’ programming appears to be developed by staff at agencies and organizations, sometimes in response to a research-based need (i.e. to increase girls activity levels) where such research exists, or an expressed desire of girls who want to participate. Some have designed creative participatory research approaches to engage
girls in the identification of their program needs and possibilities as well as gaps. The Young Women Work research project in inner city Winnipeg and the Girls Decide project in Newfoundland and Labrador are two such examples. The National YWCA has recently set up a young women’s committee to inform their programming and work with girls and young women.

The Selfish coveting

Selfish coveting of the possessions of others, though never carried out into active cheating in the present, makes one a thief in a later earth-life, while hatred and revenge secretly cherished are the seeds from which the murderer springs. So again, unselfish loving yields as harvest the philanthropist and the saint; and every thought of compassion helps to build the tender and pitiful nature which belongs to one who is a friend to all creatures. Sage Vasishtha asks Rama to do Purushartha, or show the prowess of self-exertion. Do not yield to fatalism. It will induce inertia and laziness. Recognize the Great Powers of Thought. Exert. By right thinking make for yourself a great destiny. Prarabdha is Purushartha of last birth. You sow an action and reap a habit; a habit sown results in character. You sow a character and reap a destiny. Man is the master of his own destiny. You yourself make, by the power of your thought, your destiny. You can undo it if you like. All faculties, energies and powers are latent in you. Unfold them, and become free and great.

Thought—The Architect of Destiny

If the mind dwells continually upon one train of thought, a groove is formed into which the thought-force runs automatically and such a habit of thought survives death and since it belongs to the ego, is carried over to the subsequent earth-life as a thought-tendency and capacity. Every thought, it must be remembered, has got its own mental image. The essence of the various mental images formed in one particular physical life is being worked out in the mental plane. It constitutes the basis for the next physical life. Just as a new physical body is formed in every birth, so also a new mind and a new Buddhi are formed in every birth. Not easy is the act of explaining the detailed workings of thought and destiny. Every
Karma produces twofold effect, one on the individual mind and the other on the world. Man makes the circumstances of his future life by the effect of his actions upon others. Every action has a past which leads up to it; every action has a future which proceeds from it. An action implies a desire which prompted it and a thought which shaped it. Each thought is a link in an endless chain of causes and effects, each effect becoming a cause and each cause having been an effect; and each link in the endless chain is welded out of three components—desire, thought and activity. A desire stimulates a thought; a thought embodies itself as an act. Act constitutes the web of destiny.

Thoughts, World and the Timeless Reality

It is the mind that is the root cause of the tree of Samsara with its thousands of shoots, branches, tender leaves and fruits. If you annihilate thoughts, you can destroy the tree of Samsara at once. Destroy the thoughts as soon as they arise. The root will dry up through the annihilation of thoughts, and the tree of Samsara will wither soon. This demands considerable patience and perseverance. You will be bathed in the ocean of bliss when all thoughts are extirpated. This state is indescribable. You will have to feel it yourself. Just as the fire is absorbed into its source when the fuel is burnt out, so also, the mind is absorbed into its source, the Atman, when all Sankalpas or thoughts are annihilated. Then one attains Kaivalya, the experience of the Timeless Reality, the state of absolute independence.

The Statistics

Women represented 50.5% of the total population in Canada, as of July 2004, according to Statistics Canada. In the population 19 and under, there were more males than females in each age group. Overall, of the population from birth to age 19,
51.25% are male and 48.75% are female. Females represent a greater proportion of the older age groups, beginning at age 50. Girls born in Canada in 2001 could expect to live for 82 years, compared to 77 years for boys. The life expectancy at birth has increased steadily over the past two decades, and the gender gap has narrowed. A girl born in 1981 was expected to live for 79 years, compared to 72 years for a boy.

The Inequalities

One of the most thorough studies on this issue (Bouchard et al., 2003) points out that the apparent greater success of girls at school has yet to translate into social success for women. Providing in-depth data on inequities between men and women in the workforce, in terms of paid and unpaid labor and the on-going situation regarding
violence and poverty, this report notes: “The data confirm the major ongoing inequalities between men and women, and belie the position put forward by masculinists that equality has been achieved, or indeed that there has been a reversal of positions to the disadvantage of men.” There is no question that boys face particular challenges, and do less well than girls on some indicators. We strongly concur that boys’ issues need to be addressed.

Child Initiative

The little discussion that there was on the issue of self-esteem during adolescence seemed to suggest that it was normal (“Care must be taken to balance the expected decrease in children self-esteem and parental support, as children move into full puberty.” [Ibid., p. 36]) or that more focus should be directed towards boys (“How should policies and practices in schools and other institutions be amended to accommodate the stress of early adolescence and learning? How should support for boys be different from that provided to girls?” [Ibid., p. 33]) Some conference participants noted that the Canadian Girl Child Initiative was addressing girls’ issues, and that “very little attention has been paid to how boys’ gender roles affect their health and well being.”

The Gloomy Portrait

Girls are hospitalized because of suicide attempts almost three times as often as boys. Although the suicide death rate is higher for male youth compared to female youth in the general population, the suicide rate of Aboriginal girls (age 15 to 24) is higher than for males overall in the same age group in Canada (35 deaths per
100,000 population versus 24). Girls are much more likely than boys to be
assaulted, both physically and sexually, by family members. In fact, there is overwhelming research to suggest that violence against girls is widespread and endemic in Canada. Yet, despite this gloomy portrait of girls’ lives, there is a disturbing trend emerging in the literature that suggests we should worry more about boys. The National Research Conference, Investing in Children: Ideas for Action, was held in Ottawa in 1998, as researchers and academics were interpreting the first cycle of results from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. A major finding of this conference was that boys were at greater risk than girls:

The Sketchier

When girls arrive at school, they are more likely than boys to do well, especially at reading and writing. Although the research on gender differences among the pre-teen age group is sketchier, what exists suggests that girls enjoy school more than boys. Boys are more likely than girls to repeat a grade, and are more likely to be diagnosed with hyperactivity and attention deficit disorders. From birth, more boys than girls have a disability, until around age 15, when the percentage of young women with a disability becomes slightly higher than the rate among young men. Starting around grade six, a greater proportion of girls than boys begins to skip breakfast, and starts to diet or feel that they need to lose weight. Girls consistently report lower self-esteem than boys. The proportion of young people who feel “very happy” with their life declines steadily between grades six and 10, and at every age group, girls are less happy than boys. Girls are far more likely than boys to indicate dissatisfaction with their body, and to report loneliness. The prevalence of depressive disorders among girls aged 15 to 19 years old is twice as high as among boys in the same age group.

Appeasement

Do the Republicans scent blood? One sign that they might came this week, in the form of a sharp letter from John Boehner, leader of the Republicans in the House of Representatives, to the head of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) lobby—long a good friend to the party. Mr Boehner denounced as “appeasement” the lobby’s decision to support Barack Obama’s plans for health-care reform. But that decision was made months ago; attacking it now is surely a sign that the Republicans think Mr Obama is suddenly in trouble. And with some justification. First, the Democrats failed to meet the president’s deadline for getting health bills out of both the House and the Senate by August. Next, as politicians headed home to conduct townhall meetings during this month’s recess, they encountered many constituents angry about the dangers— real or imagined—to be wrought by health reform. Some of these grumblers were planted by conservative groups, but many others were genuinely afraid or upset.

Voters attention

Voters may not be paying much attention to Afghanistan right now, but Congress is growing increasingly uneasy, says Jessica Mathews, the president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a think-tank. Lawmakers worry that the costs of America’s huge and open-ended commitment may outweigh its benefits. Counter-insurgency campaigns typically take many years, cost a fortune in blood and treasure and end in failure. The people who know most about Afghanistan are often the gloomiest. “Is Nation-Building Doomed?” asks Foreign Affairs. “Is It Worth It?” wonders the American Interest. Mr Biddle, who wrote the article in the American Interest, thinks the war is worth fighting, but only barely. The costs will be high, the outcome uncertain. Mr Obama’s strategy promises more bloodshed in the short run in exchange for a chance of stability in the long term. That is hardly a combination that will appeal to voters, so it will be hard to sustain political support for it for long enough to make it work.

The National Interest

Perhaps, if America were to abandon Afghanistan and the Taliban took over again. Denying them a safe haven is obviously in America’s national interest. But there are several other wild places where al-Qaeda might also set up shop, such as Yemen, Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan, the Philippines or Uzbekistan. “We clearly cannot afford to wage protracted warfare with multiple brigades of American ground forces simply to deny al-Qaeda access to every possible safe haven. We would run out of brigades
long before bin Laden ran out of prospective sanctuaries,” writes Stephen Biddle of the Council on Foreign Relations, a think-tank. Mr Obama knows this, of course. His purpose in committing so many troops to Afghanistan is not merely to prevent al-Qaeda from returning but also to prevent the country from collapsing into chaos and destabilising its nuclear-armed neighbour, Pakistan. That is too complicated to put on a bumper sticker, but Mr Obama still has the political capital to attempt it.

The Extremist

Osama bin Laden plotted the toppling of the twin towers from Afghanistan. Overthrowing the Taliban regime that sheltered him was the right thing to do. If elected, Mr Obama promised to pull out of Iraq and concentrate on Afghanistan. As president, he has kept his word, though not as quickly as he said he would. “We will remove all our troops from Iraq by the end of 2011,” he reiterated this week, “and for America, the Iraq war will end.” At the same time, he is sending more troops to Afghanistan. Their mission, he says, is to “disrupt, dismantle and defeat al-Qaeda and its extremist allies”.Like George Bush before him, Mr Obama reckons that the best way to sell a war to Americans is to mention al-Qaeda early and often. But also like Mr Bush, his war is more complicated than he makes it sound. American troops are not really fighting al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, because they are not there any more. The group’s surviving leaders have mostly fled to neighboring Pakistan.

More about limbs

The shape of a dinosaur’s feet depended on whether it walked on two or four legs. Four-legged dinosaurs had similar front and rear feet, spreading their weight on hooflike toes. Two-legged dinosaurs could use their front feet like hands, grasping at prey or holding plant food.
STOUT LIMBS
Widely spaced toes and thick, stout limb bones helped Triceratops spread the weight of its massive body. The shorter forelimbs carried the weight of Triceratops’ huge head. Much of the body weight was supported by the long and powerful rear legs. Short and stubby toes on all four feet ended in hoof-shaped claws.
GIANT CLAW
The powerful carnivore Baryonyx had one of the largest dinosaur claws known. The curved talon, which was 12 in (31 cm) long, formed a huge weapon on Baryonyx’s hand.
IGUANODON HAND
Iguanodon could use its hands in several ways. It could use the hoofed middle fingers for walking, and the long fifth fingers could hook onto plants. The thumb spikes were probably defensive weapons used for stabbing enemies.
CLAW FOR PROTECTION
Apatosaurus, a giant sauropod dinosaur, had a pointed claw on each front foot, which it may have used for defense.
DINOSAUR PRINT
Iguanodon left many clues behind when it became extinct. When it walked on damp sand or mud it left footprints, which dried and became preserved. The footprints of an adult Iguanodon would have been about 35 in (90 cm) long.

Dinosaur limbs

Dinosaurs held their legs directly beneath the body, unlike other reptiles, which crawl with their legs held out from the sides of the body. Huge herbivorous dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus, walked on all fours with front and rear legs supporting bulky bodies. Most carnivores, such as Albertosaurus, walked on the two back legs, leaving the front limbs free for catching and holding prey.
FLESH AND BONE
The rear legs of Albertosaurus were powered by large muscles that pulled on the bones to make them move. The ankle and metatarsals worked as part of the leg, giving a longer stride.
MYSTERIOUS DINOSAUR
Almost all that is known of Deinocheirus is this huge pair of arms and hands. Thes forelimbs are 8ft (2.4 m) long. It is thought that Deinocheirus belonged to a group of dinosaurs called ornithomimosaurs. The huge hands would have been used to catch
and hold prey.
GOOD SUPPORT
Five widely spread toes on the rear feet of Diplodocus helped support the dinosaur’s enormous weight. The first three toes had claws. A padded heel, like that of an elephant, cushioned the thundering footsteps.
FLEET FOOT
Ornithomimus was one of the speediest dinosaurs. Its three foot bones were locked together, making a long extension to the leg. Running on the tips of its toes, it could take long strides. Ornithomimus may have reached top speeds of 37 mph (60 km/h) – fast enough to escape most predators.
LEGS LIKE PILLARS
The heaviest dinosaurs had pillarlike legs, like those of elephants. Brachiosaurus weighed about 0 tons (tonnes) so it needed thick, strong legs to support its body.

Heads

Crests, frills, horns, and spikes adorned the heads of many dinosaurs. These decorations helped dinosaurs identify one another and were sometimes used for signaling. In a competition for territory, or control of a herd, the dinosaur with the most spectacular head might well have been the winner. Horned herbivores may have used their weapon for defense against hungry carnivores.
BIRD BEAK
Gallimimus ate plants, insects, and lizards with its long, toothless beak. Itslarge-eyed skull looks very much like that of a big bird.
HEAD CREST
Oviraptors may have used their head crest to signal to one another. Although toothless, their beaked jawsmay have been powerful enough to crush shellfish. HORNS AND FRILLS The ceratopsian group of dinosaurs had heads with a variety of frills and horns. These plant eaters probably used such decorations to frighten off attackers or to attract a mate.
STRONG SKULL
The massive head of Albertosaurus was built for strength. It could withstand the shock as Albertosaurus crashed, open-mouthed, into its prey. Huge jaws carried the deadly sharp teeth, and spaces in the skull left room for bulging muscles.
NOISY CRESTS
Corythosaurus carried a plate of bone high on its head which formed a crest. Males and females probably had different-sized crests for recognizing each other. The crests also had tubes inside them with which Corythosaurus was able to make sounds.

DINOSAUR ANATOMY

THE SIZE AND SHAPE of a dinosaur’s head, body, and legs help us to tell one dinosaur from another, and also tell us how the body parts were used. From the skeleton inside to the scaly skin outside, each part of a dinosaur helps build a picture of these amazing animals.
Body power
The shoulder and pelvic muscles were crucial areas of power for light, fast runners as well as slow, heavy plodders. The largest dinosaurs were not always the mightiest. Some of the smallest dinosaurs were powerful runners
PROTECTIVE CAGE Like all dinosaurs, Brachiosaurus had a cage, formed from vertebrae, ribs, and sheets of muscle, to protect the vital internal organs.
FIGHTING MALES
Strength and power were not always used to kill. Male dinosaurs may have fought each other over females or to win or defend territory. Beaten, and possibly bruised, the loser would need to move on to other hunting grounds.
STRONG MUSCLES
Centrosaurus needed powerful muscles to move its heavy, bulky body. Muscles attached to the pelvis and shoulders pulled and lifted strong legs. When running fast, Centrosaurus would have been difficult to stop in its tracks.
ORNITHOLESTES
Small and lightweight, Ornitholestes used much of its energy powering long legs when chasing small prey such as lizards and mammals.

The Unique museum

In 1890, Jesse Haworth and Martyn Kennard presented to the Manchester Museum the unique and valuable set of objects of daily use from Petrie’s excavations at Kahun, Illahun and Gurob. These constituted one of the best collections of Egyptian antiquities in Britain. They were only the first of a succession of gifts made by Haworth to the Museum, which he acquired from Petrie’s excavations. For some nine years, he and Kennard were the sole major supporters of his excavations. His magnificent donations to the Manchester collection kindled great interest in Egyptology in the area. The Museum’s first major Egyptian acquisition had been the gift of a mummy with its coffins belonging to ‘Asru, Chantress of Amun in the Temple of Karnak’. These were presented to the Manchester Natural History Society (founders of the Museum) in 1825, when it was claimed that this was ‘one of the best preserved mummies in the kingdom’. It was, however, Jesse Haworth who contributed most to the Egyptian collection, and the year 1911 was an important landmark in the Museum’s history.

Ashmolean Museum

His donations to the British Museum, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, and the Egypt Exploration Fund were generous, but it was his support of Petrie’s excavations in the Fayoum which was particularly significant. Petrie had become Hon. Joint Secretary of the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1883, and excavated for the Fund in Egypt during 1884–6. However, he quarrelled with them, and decided to set up an archaeological body of his own, which would be independent. With his original source of funding for excavation no longer available, he faced considerable difficulties, but through the good offices of Amelia Edwards, Jesse Haworth was approached. Petrie received the welcome news that a new avenue of support for his excavations in Egypt had appeared. In his book Seventy Years in Archaeology, Petrie recalls this important turning point, While in England, I heard that the offer of help in excavating came from Jesse Haworth of Manchester, through the kind intervention of Miss Edwards.

Egypt Exploration

Amelia Edwards was a remarkable woman who founded the Egypt Exploration Fund to further the aims of scientific excavation and publication, and to generate public support and enthusiasm for Egyptology. In her will, she bequeathed her library and valuable collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College London; she also left a sum of £2,400 to found the first chair of Egyptology in Britain, at University College London, expressing a wish that Petrie should be appointed. He held this post for forty years. It was a meeting with Amelia Edwards, shortly after his return from Egypt, that inspired Jesse Haworth to give financial support to
the subject, and in 1887, he began to show his enthusiasm in a practical way when he secured the throne, chessboard and chessmen of the Egyptian queen Hatshepsut, which had been discovered in Egypt in the previous year. The throne was in pieces, but it was skilfully reassembled and exhibited at the Jubilee Exhibition in Manchester in 1887. When the exhibition closed, Haworth presented it to the British Museum.

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The Kahun

Kahun was built, c.1895 BC, to house the workmen employed in building the pyramid and temples of King Sesostris II. However, it was also occupied by officials who supervised the pyramid building programme, and later, by priests and other personnel who served in the temples. The kings of the 12th Dynasty developed various irrigation projects in this area, and Kahun would also have played a significant role in these concerns. It undoubtedly became a prosperous and important centre, and it would be wrong to regard it simply as a pyramid workmen’s town. In antiquity, both the town and the temple, which adjoined it and was part of the pyramid complex, were known by the name of ‘Hetep-Sesostris’—‘Sesostris is pleased, or satisfied’. However, Petrie, on discovering the site in 1887, asked an old man what the town was called.

Medinet kahun

The town beyond the temple (called Medinet Kahun I hear) I now suspect to be of the age of the temple, 12th Dynasty, and to be almost untouched since then. If so, it will be a prize to work for historical interest of dated objects. I cannot be certain yet as to its age, but the pottery is quite unlike any that I yet know, except some chips of 12th Dynasty that I got at Hawara: and the walls of the town run regardless of natural features, over a low hill and back again but square with the temple. In the 1888/9 season, Petrie, anxious to prevent a German dealer Kruger from ransacking the sites, placed a small number of workmen at Kahun and Gurob. He visited them and supervised their work as frequently as possible from the nearby site of Hawara which he was currently working. According to an entry in his Journal (8–15 April 1889), he was finally able to start his excavation at Kahun.

21st and 26th Dynasties.

A small temple adjoined the pyramid on the east, and half a mile distant on the edge of the desert lay another temple, also part of the original pyramid complex. North of the larger temple was situated the town of the pyramid workmen, known today as ‘Kahun’. At the south end of the dyke, a later town, built in the 18th Dynasty, also attracted Petrie’s attention. Egyptologists know it by the name of ‘Gurob’ or ‘Medinet Gurob’. An entry in his Journal for the period 24 February to 2 March 1889 clearly indicates Petrie’s initial interest in the site of Kahun, and his accurate perception of its historical importance

The Egyptologist

Subsequently, priests and other personnel were employed in the pyramid temples, where the king’s mortuary cult was performed after his death and burial. Around this nucleus, the community soon developed and lawyers, doctors, scribes, craftsmen, tradesmen and all the other elements of a thriving Society came together. It was in the Fayoum, in the late nineteenth century that the famous Egyptologist, Sir William Flinders Petrie, made one of his earliest and most significant discoveries. In 1888/ 9, he began his excavation of several sites in the area. These sites lay at the north and south ends of the great dyke of the Fayoum mouth.

The Capital of Egypt

South-west of Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, on the west side of the Nile, there lies the province of Fayoum, the largest of the country’s oases, which owes its remarkable fertility both to springs of water, and to the Bahr Yusef, a channel through which the waters of the Nile flow into the famous lake of the oasis, known today as the ‘Birket El-Qarun’. In antiquity, as today, the area provided excellent hunting and fishing, and the kings and their courtiers visited the area regularly to enjoy these pastimes. The kings of the 12th Dynasty (1991–1786 BC) chose to build their capital city here, and to be buried in pyramids built nearby, on the edge of the desert. Their decision brought unprecedented activity and prosperity to the area; not only was a workforce employed to build and decorate each king’s pyramid and associated temples, but officials and overseers were brought in to supervise the work.

Superstitions

Superstitions about lucky and unlucky days are just as common as those about numbers, and Friday probably has more than any of them centering about it. In ancient Rome, the sixth day of the week was dedicated to Venus. When the northern nations adopted the Roman method of designating days, they named the sixth day after Frigg or Freya, which was their nearest equivalent to Venus, and hence the name Friday. The Norsemen actually considered Friday the luckiest day of the week; nut the Christians regarded it as the unluckiest. One reason for this is that Christ was crucified on a Friday. The Mohammedans say that Adam was created on a Friday, and according to legend, Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit on a Friday and they died on a Friday. Superstitious people feel that when you combine the unlucky number 13 with the unlucky day Friday, you’ve really got an unlucky day!

Islam

In the early part of the seventh century, a young Arab felt himself divinely inspired to found a new religion and go forth as its prophet. This great man whose name was Mohammed, sowed the seeds of a faith that has become one of the three foremost world religions. Mohammed called his religion Islam (which means submission to the will of God). It is known by this name to its more than 315,000,000 followers. The true believers are called Moslems. Islam is based largely on the Jewish and Christian religions. According to Mohammed, God revealed himself to man through his chosen prophets, among them Mohammed. God gave the Laws to Moses, the Gospel to Jesus, and the Koran to Mohammed.

Supreme Buddha

The followers of Buddha came to consider him a god and set up images of him and worshipped them. But Buddha himself didn’t believe there was s supreme god. He believed and taught that the soul of man passes after death to a higher or lower organism, according to his good or bad deeds during life. This transmigration of the soul into another body goes on through many circles until all desires is overcome. Then the soul enters Nirvana, or a state prefect peace. In order to reach this state, man must follow the Eight-Fold Path of Right Faith, by observing Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Thinking, and Right Meditation.

What is an Avalanche?

An avalanche is a sliding mass of snow, or ice, or wet earth and stones. An avalanche of earth and stones is a kind of landslide. It can happen even in regions without snow. A steep mountainside or bluff becomes thoroughly soaked with water, or is weakened in some other way. The earth can no longer stand in such a steep slope without sliding, and an avalanche begins.
This kind of avalanche is most common in the spring, when winter snow and ice melt and soak the ground below. It may also occur where man digs a roadway or mine along the base of a steep mountainside. This kind of landslide has often blocked mountain valleys and thereby created large lakes.

The United States Of America

The USA is made up of 50 states (including Alaska and Hawaii) and the District of Columbia, which contains the capital city of Washington. It includes a huge variety of landscapes, from hot deserts to snow-covered mountains. The country was once a colony under British rule but has been independent since 1776. It has become the world’s wealthiest country and a leader in industry. It is now the greatest economic and military superpower. It is a federal constitutional republic which comprises of fifty states and a federal district. It is situated mostly in central North America. It has Washington, D.C., the capital district and the 48 contiguous states which between the pacific and Atlantic Oceans. It is bordered by Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. In the mid-pacific there is an archipelago is Hawaii State. The native people of the U.S mainland, includes Alaska Natives, whom are believed to have migrated from Asia.

The Canada

Canada is the third largest country in the world, after Russia and China. Almost half of Canada’s land area is covered by forest and it exports more timber, pulp and newsprint than any other country. Canada also has a successful fishing industry and lots of natural resources, such as minerals and metals. Its varied landscape attracts millions of tourists each year. Famous Canadian landmarks include Niagara Falls and the Rocky Mountains. It is occupied by various groups of Aboriginal people. Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. Canada is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy. This country has a parliamentary government with strong democratic tradition. Canada is reliant upon its own abundant natural resources and upon trade – particularly with the United States. As a matter of fact, the both countries Canada and the United States of America has had a long and complex relationship. Both the countries, share the world’s longest undefended border, work together on military campaigns and are the largest trading partner.

Lost cities

Angkor, cambodia
Angkor was once the largest city in the world and more than a million people lived there. The city had an area of more than 78 sq km and was surrounded by a water-filled moat. It was abandoned in about AD 1100. French naturalist Henri Mouhot was the first westerner to discover the city, in 1861.

Atlantis
Some people believe that there was a city and island of Atlantis, perhaps in the Mediterranean, that was destroyed by an earthquake and flooding almost 12,000 years ago. No one knows exactly where it was or even whether it really existed.

Chicten itza, Mexico
Chicten itza was once the centre of the Mayan empire. It was built in about AD 400 and had many buildings used in Mayan rituals. The city was abandoned in AD 1200.

Cliff Palace (Mesa Verde), Colorado, USA
This Native American Indian city was built on a cliff side, but was abandoned during a long drought in the late 13th century. It lay unknown until 18 December 1888, when Richard Wetherill, a local farmer, spotted it while looking or stray cattle.

Computer use worldwide

Google is the most used internet search engine in the world. Founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while during their studies at Stanford University and it was incorporated as a private company on September4, 1998.Since 1998 it has indexed more than 12 billion web pages, images and other items. It is also one of the fastest-growing companies of all time, with earnings in 2005 of $6.1 billion. In 1943 Thomas Watson, the chairman of IBM, made one of the least accurate predictions ever. He said, “I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.” There are now over one billion personal computers around the world. Forecasts for 2007, estimate that by then there will be 162 computers in use for every 1,000 people on the planet. The figure for some countries will be much higher. In the USA there may be as many as 831 per 1,000 people on the planet. The figure for some countries will be much higher.

Crop circles

Crop circles are complicated geometric patterns, usually in wheat fields. Some people believe that the patterns are left by the imprint of an extra-terrestrial craft, or that they are by the imprint of an extra-terrestrial craft, or that they are a message from extra-terrestrials themselves. Another theory is that natural forces such as tornadoes, heat or strong winds create the patterns by flattening the crops, but the regular shapes of most crop circles makes this unlikely. The most likely explanation is that the crops are made by people as a hoax. They gradually build up a design by flattening the wheat, using very basic equipment such as rope and planks of wood. Those rose in fame in 1975 as circles began appearing all the way through the English countryside. In late 1980s the phenomenon of crop circles turns out to be widely known widely. A farmer in 1996 set up a booth and charged a fee for visiting the crop circles which appeared near Stonehenge. The value of the crop been harvested by him was most likely of about 150 pounds, whereas he collected 30,000 in four weeks.

Calorie Count

A calorie (with a capital C) is a unit that measures the amount of energy in foods. It is also known as a kilo calorie and is equal to 1,000 calories (with a small c). A calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. An adult might eat up to 3,000 Calories a day. Eating too many Calories that the body does not use for energy may make you fat. Nutritionists and scientists also use another unit, the kilojoules, for measuring the energy in food. One calorie equals 0.004184 kilojoules. The figures below are based on the average number of Calories a 70 kg adult burn when doing an activity for one hour. A lighter person uses fewer calories and a heavier person more.

What we eat
How much food do you think you’ll eat in a lifetime? Every few years the British Government carries out a national survey to find out how much people eat. The average person will eat more than 50 tonnes of food over an 80-year life span.

Sleep fact file

About one-third of our lives are spent sleeping, but very little is really known about it. We sleep in different stages. These range from light sleep, with periods of REM (Rapid Eye Movement) in between, during which we dream. The connection between REM sleep and dreaming was discovered in 1953. It usually begins about 90 minutes after falling asleep and occurs in bursts, totaling about two hours a night, or 20% of your total sleep time. New born babies can sleep for up to 21 hours out of 24. Children and teenagers need approximately 10 hours of sleep a night, while most adults need only 7-9 hours. Those over 65 need the least of all – about six hours. Older people also have deep sleep and less REM sleep than young people. Trains have a “dead man’s handle”, which must be held at all times. If the driver falls asleep and loses his grip, the train stops.

Amazing feats

In 1997, at Sydney airport, Australia, David Huzley pulled a 187-tonne Boeing 747-400 a distance of 91m. He had previously hauled a Boeing 737 and a Concorde.
In the annual Empire State Building Run-up, runners race up the famous skyscraper’s 1,576 steps. In 2006 Andrea Mayr of Austria set a new women’s record of 11 minutes 23 seconds. The overall record-holder is Australian athlete Paul Crake. In 2003, he got to the top in 9 minutes 33 seconds. He also holds the record for the Australian Sydney Tower Run-up.
In 2005, US arm-wrestler Ed Shelton ripped up 55 telephone directories, each 1,044 pages thick. It took him three minutes.
Australian Arulanantham Suresh Joachim holds many endurance records, including a drumming marathon (84 hours), the longest time standing still (76 hours 40 minutes), running 100 miles/ 161km on a treadmill (42 minutes 33 seconds) and crawling one mile/1.6km (37 minutes 17 seconds). In 2006 he announced his intention to run a mega-marathon through 54 countries in 181 days, a distance of over 6,000 km.

Body records

Longest nails
Shridhar Chillai of pune, india (1937-) has not cut the nails on his left hand since 1952. By 2000 the total length of his nails on that hand was over 600cm.

Longest beard
Hans Langseth (1846-1927) had a beard that measured 5.33m. It has been in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA, since 1967.

Longest Moustache
Kalyan Ramji Sain of Sundargath, India, holds the record. His moustache measures 3.29m form tip to tip.

Longest hair
Swami Pandarasanndhi was the head of a monastery in madras, India. When his hair was measured in 1949 it was 7.9m long.

Longest sneezing bout
Donna Griffiths of Pershore, Worcestershire, started sneezing on 13 January 1981 and continued for 978 days.
Longest hiccupping
Charles Osborne of Anthon, Iowa, USA, hiccupped from 1922 to 1990.

Maths genius
When he was only eight years old, American Zerah Colburn (1804-40) worked out how many seconds had elapsed since the birth of Christ. He did this in his head within seconds. When zerah was asked whether 4,294,967,297 was a prime number (one that cannot be divided evenly by another number), he instantly replied that it was not – it is equal to 641 times 6,700,417.

The improvements

Technical improvements and the demand for faster communications encouraged companies to try laying cables over even greater distances. Several attempts to lay cables across the Atlantic failed when the cables snapped, but one was completed in 1858. To mark the occasion, Queen Victoria sent a telegraph message to President Buchanan in the USA. It took almost 18 hours to transmit her 99-word message! Attempts were made to increase the pace by raising the voltage, but this quickly burned out the cable. In 1865 the world’s largest ship at the time, the Great Eastern, laid the first continuous cable across the Atlantic. It was the only ship to carry a cable long enough. During the 20th century, telegraph cables which transmitted Morse code were steadily replaced by telephone cables, which could transmit voices. Hundreds of thousands of kilometers of underwater cables were laid across the world’s oceans and seas. These have now been replaced by fiber-optic cables, which offer faster transmission and many more connections.

Internet milestones

In little over 10 years, the internet has become a global phenomenon. In 1995 it was used by about 45 million people around the world. By 2006, the figure had more than doubled to 1,018,057,386. By the time you read this, the figures will have increased again.
During the 1960s scientists in the USA began trying to work out how organizations could keep in touch with one another after a nuclear attack. In 1965 ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) suggested linking computers. In 1969 computers at four US universities were connected and were able to ‘talk’ to each other for the first time.
The network was extended and in 1973 computers were connected between London and Norway. At the same time, electronic mail (e-mail) was being used more and more to send messages between computers. In 1976 Queen Elizabeth II became the first monarch to send an e-mail message. In 1979 the first Usenet newsgroups (online discussion groups) began.

Plucking up Mangoes

Mangoes are plucked when they are yet hard and green. Generally when a few semi-ripe fruits begin to fall naturally from the tree, others are plucked with a bamboo harvester without bruising their skin. After keeping them in the open for a day, mangoes are placed in single layers of straw or grass. Within a week, they are ready to be eaten. It is believed; artificially ripened mangoes taste better and have a better flavor than those ripened on trees.

Weighty words

Acre

An acre describes an area of land and comes for the old English word aecar, meaning a ploughed field. It was the area a team of oxen could plough in one day. In the UK in 1824, an acre was set as 4,840 square yards.

Celsius
A temperature scale invented in 1742by Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. A Celsius degree is 1/100th of the difference between the freezing and boiling points of water (0 degree and 100 degree).

Fahrenheit
This temperature scale was devised by German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32 degree.

Foot
Foot originally meant the average length of an adult foot, and has been used since ancient times. Before France invented the metric system, the French foot was based on the length of the Emperor Charlemagne’s foot.

Gram/kilogram
Gram comes from the same ancient Greek word that gave us grammar, and means a marked-off division. A kilogram is 1,000 grams; kilo comes from the Greek chilioi, meaning one thousand

Big numbers

The terms used for big numbers differ between the UK and the USA and other parts of the world. Until recently, a billion was a million in the US, but a thousand million everywhere else. The UK has changed this definition to match the rest of the world, but other big numbers are still different. There are names for even bigger numbers, including a trigent- billion (60,000,003 zeros) and sextant-billion (1,800,000,003 zeros). In 1938, nine-year-old Milton Sirotta came up with the word googol, which means a one followed by 100 zeros. Mathematician called Edward Kasner (1878-1955). A googolplex is an even bigger number – a one with a googol of zeros, or 10 to the googol power. This number is so vast that, as Kasner explained,”…there would not be enough room to write it, if one went to the furthest stars, touring all the nebulae in the universe and putting down zeros every inch of the way.” There is no such number as a zillion – the word just means a huge amount.

Crazy inventions

There is no end to the extraordinary items dreamed up by inventors – a self-raising hat (1896) for the polite man with his arms full; spectacles for chickens to protect their eyes from other fowl that might attempt to peck them (1903); an automatic haircutter (1951); a motorized ice cream cone (1998) which rotates against the tongue. Here are some other examples.
Parachute fire escape
This invention was patented in 1879 by Benjamin B. Oppenheimer of Trenton, Tennessee, USA. It was made up of a parachute attached to a helmet and padded shoes that would allow a person to leap out of a blazing building and land safely – if he was lucky enough not to break his neck.

Spider ladder
This invention was perhaps not so crazy for people who are scared of spiders. British inventor Edward Doughney’s 1991 patent helps spiders to climb out of a bath.

Elephant springboard
A British patent was issued to E. Wulff in 1904 for a springboard that would make an elephant turn a somersault. The animal’s heavy landing was problem that Mr. Wulff failed to solve.

How can we measure things about the stars?

The distance from the earth to the nearest star is four and one half light-years. A light – year is about six million million miles – or 6,000,000,000,000 miles! Now, if the stars are this vast distance away from us, how can we measure how big they are, what they’re made of, and so on? At one time, the only instrument the astronomers had was the telescope. Today, a whole group of special instruments exists to help astronomers study the motions, brightness, color, temperatures, and composition of the stars. First of these is the camera, which is used to make permanent records of the stars observed. Another instrument is the spectrograph. This is used to photograph the spectra of the stars, or the rays of light coming from them. With the help of the spectrograph, astronomers have learned most of what they know about what the stars are made of, their temperatures, and the speeds at which they are moving.

Leonardo da vinci

Italian genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is best known as a painter, anatomist, sculptor and architect. His paintings The Last Supper and Mona Lisa are among the most famous of all time. But he is also hailed as one of the greatest inventors who ever lived. Among his notebooks he left plans for countless advanced machines, often with descriptions written in secret mirror writing. Many of them were never built, but they anticipated modern inventions, often by hundreds of years. They include the following:
Air conditioner, Alarm clock, Ball-bearings, chemical and biological warfare, clock with minute and four hands, crane, diving suit and diving bell, double –hull ship, dredging machine, flying machine, gas mask, gears, giant catapults and crossbows, helicopter, lifebelt, magnetic compass, mechanical musical instruments, milometer, multi-barreled machine gun, one-person battleship, parachute, pedometer (for measuring walking distance), revolving stage, screw-making machine, shrapnel bomb, spectacles, steam engine, tank-like armored vehicle, telescope, water clock, water turbine

Something about Mangoes Seeds

Mangoes can easily propagate from seeds. But to ensure good quality, ‘inarching’ or simple grafting is commonly practiced in most states of the country. A shoot from a suitable parent tree is united to a potted seedling. This graft is carefully nursed for about one year and is then planted out in the garden. Here, it gradually grows into a graceful dome-shaped form, and four years after, the tree is ready to bear fruits. The grafted tree bears good fruits for about fifty years. On the other hand, a seedling tree—grown out of a seed—takes about ten years to bear fruits but has a longer fruitive period than the grafted one.
The tree grows well in humid as well as dry climates. Rain, fog or cloudy weather at the time of flowering affect fruit-setting. Similarly, heavy rains during the maturing and ripening of the fruit cases damage to the crop. In South India, the tree starts flowering in December-January while in North India, flowering takes place late—mid February to mid March. After flowering, it takes about ninety days for the fruit of ripen.

How many kinds of mangoes are cultivated in India?

It is estimated that about a thousand varieties of mangoes are grown in various parts of India, each variety characterized by its own peculiar taste and flavor. The number of wild varieties is unknown. Of the cultivated kind, thirty varieties of are commercially well known. Some of them are the Duseheri or Dashehari; the Langra and the Chausa of the North; the Alphonso and the Kalepad of the west; the Baneshan (Bangan-Palli); the Jahangir (Umdra); the Imam Pasand and Neelum of the South and south-east; and the Gulab-Khan and the Malda of the east. Quite often one single variety assumes several different names as orchardists like to consider each seedling as a new ‘variety’ and to Christen it with exotic new name. One can call it by any name, but a mango is always delicious.
Although the mango is now cultivated in several countries of the world, no where else has it achieved the prime position it enjoys in India. It occupies about 70% of the total area under fruit cultivation in this country. The State of Uttar Pradesh has the largest area under mango cultivation where 150 varieties of mangoes are grown. Bihar comes next followed by Andhra Pradesh.

Another four elements

Helium

Helium is twice as heavy as hydrogen, but it is still only one seventh the weight of air. Unlike hydrogen does not burn, so it is used in modern airships.

Lithium
Lithium was discovered in 1817 by Swedish scientists Johan August Arfvedson. It takes its name from the Latin word for rock, although it is actually a metal. Lithium is so light (42 times lighter than the heaviest element, osmium) and so soft that it can be easily cut with a knife. It floats because it is half as heavy as water, and lighter than some types of wood. It is used to make lithium batteries.

Potassium and sodium
Both are discovered in 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy. Both are metals that are lighter than water. In a laboratory, potassium is usually kept in paraffin because if it comes into contact with water it releases hydrogen and generate so much heat that it catches fire.

1980s and 1990s

By 1981 the ARPA network had 213 hosts (sites to which users could connect). A new host was added approximately every 20 days. In 1982 a common language called TCP/IP was invented which allowed all internet computers to communicate with each other and the network was first called an internet. In the 19802s many more people and businesses began to use computers. The internet began to be used commercially, as well as by governments and universities.
In 1991 the World Wide Web (www) was created. It combined words, pictures and sounds in a system that ordinary people could easily understand and use. By 1994 approximately 40 million people were connected to the internet. They could exchange information, sell goods, and work form any computer with a phone call. The rolling stones rock group even broadcast a concert over the internet. Schools started using the internet as an electronic library. By 1996 users in almost 150 countries around the world were connected to the internet

The heaviest elements

Osmuim
Osmium is the heaviest element of all (22.61g per cubic centimeter). It was discovered by the British chemist Smithson Tennant in 1803. He named it after the Greek word for smell because it smelt bad. Osmium is twice as heavy as lead – so heavy that a cubic foot (0.028317 cubic meters) weighs 640ks, as much as ten average people! A football made of osmium would weigh 126 kg, or much as two adults. Osmium is also very hard, and is used to make hard-wearing points, such as the nibs of fountain pens.

Platinum
Platinum was used before anyone realized that it was an element. It weighs almost as much as osmium (21.45g per cubic centimeter) and is also used in catalytic converters in cars to reduce the pollution from exhaust gases.

Plutonium
Plutonium was discovered in 1941 and is heavy and highly radioactive metal. It is used as a nuclear fuel and in nuclear weapons - a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equivalent to 20,000 tonnes of TNT.

Elements on Earth

There is calcium in the Earth and sea in the form of calcium carbonate. Sodium exists in the form of sodium chloride, the salt in the sea and on our tables. The quantities of both calcium and sodium are so vast that these elements are considered unlimited. Some elements are mined and used in industry. Iron is the most common, followed by magnesium. There are quite small amounts of some precious metals on earth, which is why they are so valuable. For example, there are about one million tones of silver and 15,000 tonnes of gold. Elements are constantly being taken from Earth, but new discoveries are being made. We are still some way from running out of even the rarest elements. Element 98 was given the name Californium by the four scientists who discovered it in 1950. They were working at the University of California at Berkeley, and named the element for both the state and their university.

Which is the most ancient fruit of India?

The mango which has been under cultivation for over 4,000 years is the most ancient fruit of India. In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, forests and gardens of mangoes have been mentioned. It is said that a mango grove was presented to the Buddha so that he could use it as a place of repose. Alexander the great is reported to have spotted a pleasant mango garden in the Indus Valley in 327 B.C. Besides being referred to in Sanskrit texts, the mango tree is prominently carved on stupas. And the fruit was a popular motif on the textiles of ancient India.
The mango probably originated in the Assam – Burma – Thailand region. Nature propagated it further in the tropical and sub-tropical forests of India. Today it is found throughout the country in wild and cultivated form.
Hailed as the “Golden Fruit” and ‘the choicest fruit of India’, the mango today is the most favorite fruit of every Indian, and has earned for itself the title ‘the King of Fruits’.

Colors of the stars

One star may have a spectrum that is like that of other stars. The stars in each spectral class are found to have the same color. The colors range from blue to red. Our sun is a yellow star, in the middle of the range. The temperature of a star can also be found by measuring colors in the spectrum. The blue stars are large, hot, and brilliant, with temperatures of 25,000 degrees or more. Red stars are rather cool and have surface temperatures of 1,600 degrees or less. To find what chemical elements are in the stars, the astronomer compares their spectra with spectra made in the laboratory. All the elements found in the stars are also present in the earth, but the stars are basically balls of very hot gas, mainly hydrogen and helium. The astronomers also use special types of telescopes which can photograph large areas of sky. Still another type of instrument is the radio telescope. This has a very large antenna, a receiver, and a registering meter.

How was the light – year discovered?

We know that just by studying the spectrum an astronomer can tell you what a star billions of miles away is made of and the elements present, take the star’s temperature, figure out how fast it is moving, and whether that motion is toward earth or away from it! The spectrum consists of the lines into which white light is broken up when it is bent, as when it goes through a prism. All across the spectrum, in addition to the shadings of color, there are hundreds of parallel lines. They are known as Fraunhofer lines, in honor of their discoverer. Each chemical element in a gaseous or vapor state has its own pattern of lines occupying its own place in the spectrum. The lines stand for the colors taken up from the light by the element when it is heated so that it glows. This means that a scientist can find out what materials are present in any substance, no matter how far removed.

What is an Observatory?

Thousands of years ago, astronomers probably used the pyramids in Egypt and the towers and temples in Babylonia to help them study the sun, moon and stars. There were no telescopes then. In time, astronomical instruments were developed, and as they became larger and more numerous, observatories were built to house them. Some observatories were built to house them. Some observatories were built more than a thousand years ago. An observatory has to be built in the right place, a place with favorable weather conditions, moderate temperatures many days of sunshine and nights without clouds, and as little haze, rain and snow as possible. It must also be away from city lights and neon signs, which make the sky too light for good observation. There are buildings which include living quarters in addition to telescopes. The instruments are housed in structures of steel and concrete. The building for the telescope is constructed in two parts. The lower part is stationary, and the upper part, or roof, is in the shape of a dome which can be rotated.

What is an element?

The elements are sometimes called the building blocks of the Universe because everything in the Universe – including ourselves – is made of them. The nucleus of each element consists of atoms with the same number of protons. Each element is unique, although elements can exist in different forms – for example, carbon may be soft graphite or hard diamond. Elements cannot be broken down into any other substance. There is about 118 elements altogether, and 91 occur naturally on Earth. Others can be created artificially in laboratories, but in minute quantities and they have very short life spans of only thousandths of a second. Each element is also known by a one- or two- letter symbol as well as its name. Examples are Fe for Iron and Na for sodium. A chemical compound is a combination of two or more elements linked together, which can be broken down again into their constituent parts but no further.

The Spectrum of Colours

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all forms of light, from radio waves and microwaves at one end of the scale to X-rays and gamma rays at the other. In between is visible or white light, which is made up of a range of colors. We can see the individual colors when they are split up by water droplets and form a rainbow, or by water droplets and form a rainbow, or passing white light through a prism. It spans a continuous spectrum of colors. The colors of the spectrum are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Actually there are no bands in the Rainbow. The photo pigments in the human eye are an apparent with as completely separated and unconnected and in the brain outputs of photoreceptor and the neural processing. The humans with normal color vision see the rainbow is thought to be representative of how they see everywhere.

Strange studies

Angelology is the study of Angels
Aphnology is the study of Wealth.
Biometrology is the effect of weather on people.
Cereology is the study of Crop circles.
Cryology is the study of snow, ice and frozen ground.
Cryptology is the study of Codes and Ciphers.
Draconology is the study of Dragons.
Enigmatology is the study of puzzles.
Eremology is the study of the Deserts.
Fromology is the study about the cheese.
Garbology is the study of the Rubbish.
Gelotology is the study of the Laughter.
Googlogy is the study of the Google search engine.
Hypnology is the study of Sleep.
Kalology is the study of Beauty.
Limacology is the study of Slugs.
Loimology is the study of Plagues.
Momilogy is the study of Mummies.
Nanotechnology is the study of very small objects.
Nephology is the study of clouds.
Osmology is the study of Smells.
Pharology is the study of Lighthouses.
Polemology is the study of Wars.

Sound level

The decibel (dB) is a way of measuring sound. Sounds of 80-90dB or more can damage hearing and it is dangerous for people to work in sound levels of more than 90dB. Sounds above 130 dB become painful, and people should wear hearing protectors with sounds of more than 140dB. A decibel level of more than 150dB can cause permanent deafness. It is defined as the difference between the pressure which is found within a sound wave and the pressure of the medium outside of itself within the same medium. The time and/ or space are usually averaged with the square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure, and a square root of such average is taken to a root mean square value. An insignificant disparity which is found in the pressure in air at an audio frequency will be perceived as a deafening sound which can cause damage in hearing.

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How dense?

A cubic meter (m3) of pure water weighs 1,000 kg or one tone. Materials that have a density that is greater than water Sink, and those that are less dense float. Lightweight metals such as aluminium and titanium are important to engineers – for example, for building aircraft that need to be strong but enough to fly. These are the average densities of some of the substances around us. It is defined as a materials mass per unit volume. Its symbol is the Greek letter ‘rho’. It is defined mathematically as

p=m/v

where:

p (rho) is the density,

m is the mass,

V is the volume. Habitually, different materials have different densities. With regarding buoyancy, metal purity and packing the density is considered an important thing. it is expressed as the dimensionless quantities specific gravity or relative density. It is usually expressed in multiplies of the density usually water or air.